For many years, decision making was studied mainly by economists who made several assumptions about how people choose among alternatives. They assumed that decision makers have well-articulated and agreed-on organizational goals. They also assumed that decision makers are rational thinking machines who efficiently and simultaneously process facts about all alternatives and the consequences of those alternatives. Finally, these theorists assumed that decision makers always choose the alternative with the highest payoff. These were only hypothetical assumptions, but this rational perspective laid the foundation for popular misconceptions about how people make decisions.

Problems and opportunities do not announce themselves. They are recognized and ultimately defined by the decision maker. However, people are not perfectly efficient or neutral thinking machines, so problems are often misdiagnosed and opportunities are overlooked. The project manager's role is to correctly understand a problem and to identify opportunities to correct such problems -- not always as easy as it sounds! Two factors that interfere with identifying problems and opportunities are the decision makers imperfect perceptions and diagnostic skills.

When Albert Einstein was asked how he would save the world in one hour, he replied that he would spend the first 55 minutes defining the problem and the last five minutes solving it.

In spite of the best intentions of sender and receiver to communicate, several barriers inhibit the effective exchange of information. As author George Bernard Shaw once wrote, "The greatest problem with communication is the illusion that it has been accomplished." Executives estimate that 15 percent of their time is wasted due to poor communications with employees. This translates into approximately eight weeks per person each year.

If there's one thing that a project manager needs to do well it is communicate. Up the line, down the line, with peers, just about every hour of a project manager's day involves communication. As such, it is vitally important to understand the barriers that are likely to get in the way of effective communication. The following will discuss four pervasive problems in this section: perceptions, filtering, language, and information overload.

Project managers often feel like they have no power. And in fact, they typically don't have any in the traditional sense of the word i.e. they don't have managerial responsibility over the people they are trying to coordinate. However, project managers do finish projects so what sort of power do they have over people in their organizations?

This post builds on the fundamental principle that many of the challenges stem from the fact that project management is not the primary purpose of organizations, and never will be. Companies are created, structured and run primarily to deliver operational products and services. Projects, however, are still critical to the business success of these organizations - in creating, enhancing, replacing and retiring products and services in response to competitive and market demands. The challenge, then, is to arrive at an approach to managing projects in organizations that can co-exist with their current operational focus. This series addresses the practical steps that organizations can and must take to successfully create an effective project management capability.

The concept of management by projects is a non-starter. The average company is not a project-driven company, and likely never will be. So why is this an idea that continues to be so prevalent? What problems -- real or perceived -- do it's proponents hope to address? And if the project-driven organization cannot exist, what business model will surface that will reasonably address these problems? This series takes an in depth look at these questions, and offers insightful and reasoned answers.

I received an e-mail from a visitor to my site who described the following situation:

Hope you're fine. I was wondering if you could possibly help me. I'm a final year project management student currently undertaking a university research project as my final year assignment. I was shocked to see that so many methodologies actually exist as we have only been taught Prince2. My question is, what would be an ideal methodology for me to undertake in regards to a university project on children with asthma? My university has received funding from an organization called [company name removed] and we want to create an Expert Patient Program for young children with asthma. This will be done by conducting a number of workshops and drawing conclusions from the children's views. Any ideas?

In a previous post, we discussed the reality that while the practice of project management may continue to advance, overall project results will not significantly improve until better decisions are made through the full lifecycle of an idea. One of the most significant barriers to improvement, however, is the comprehension of what this lifecycle represents in terms of stages -- and where the responsibility for decisions resides in each stage.

The road to organizational change is an odd one: both well traveled and unfamiliar at the same time. The intensity of resistance, the many bumps and potholes and the sense of isolation all too often lead one to surmise that the road is one seldom traveled. It is easy to assume that few have passed this way, and those that have had not too easy a time of it. Certainly no easier than ourselves as we face it today as if for the first time.

An emerging theme that I have encountered in conversations of late is the perception that project management is becoming the latest management fad. Interestingly, my reaction has ranged from "Is it?" to "Already?" to "Why did it take this long?" For someone who has been on the inside of promoting and developing project management as a corporate competency, it is easy to develop the impression that this is the way things have always been done. Objectively stepping back, however, project management as a formal discipline is a much newer concept for many organizations.

The concept of management by projects is a non-starter. The average company is not a project-driven company, and likely never will be. So why is this an idea that continues to be so prevalent? What problems -- real or perceived -- do it's proponents hope to address? And if the project-driven organization cannot exist, what business model will surface that will reasonably address these problems? This series takes an in depth look at these questions, and offers insightful and reasoned answers.

I recently got through the book, The Blind Men and the Elephant by David Schmaltz. The sub-heading of this book is "mastering project work". That, along with recommendations from others, prompted me to buy the book expecting to read about processes and techniques for managing projects. That's not quite what I got.

In a recent issue of PM Network, Peter Fretty covered the topic of innovation in corporations. His perspective is that innovation doesn't always arrive with a bang, but that is can also be an incremental process that takes years. Along with his review of these two types of innovation he also provided some guidance on fostering innovation. But what I found most interesting about his article was the innovation styles he referenced.

To do a project, or not to do a project. That is the question.

The rationale by which project decisions get made varies widely from organization to organization, and is for the vast majority of organizations largely a subjective process. While a few short years ago the linkage between projects and strategy was a much more tenuous one, it is now becoming much more widely recognized that projects are a key means of realizing organizational strategy. The choices we make in terms of the projects that are taken on have a significant influence in defining organizational strategy for the organization.

The state of Maine spent $25 million on a web-based Medicaid claims system. In exchange for all that money, they got a $300 million backlog in unprocessed claims. Doesn't seem like a particularly good deal, does it? The details of this web services project were unique, but the problems were quite common. Projects fail all the time and there are often plenty of people to point fingers at.

The concept of management by projects is a non-starter. The average company is not a project-driven company, and likely never will be. So why is this an idea that continues to be so prevalent? What problems -- real or perceived -- do it's proponents hope to address? And if the project-driven organization cannot exist, what business model will surface that will reasonably address these problems? This series takes an in depth look at these questions, and offers insightful and reasoned answers.

The concept of management by projects is a non-starter. The average company is not a project-driven company, and likely never will be. So why is this an idea that continues to be so prevalent? What problems -- real or perceived -- do it's proponents hope to address? And if the project-driven organization cannot exist, what business model will surface that will reasonably address these problems? This series takes an in depth look at these questions, and offers insightful and reasoned answers.

Given the diversity of beliefs and the passionate intensity of opinions, is there any right answer for how organizational change is accomplished? Is it dictated, or facilitated? Mandated or guided? Driven or led? And is there a single meaningful answer?

Some of the greatest innovations - not just of our lifetime, but throughout the ages - are the products of a select few individuals seeing, understanding and believing a truth where all others saw fallacy, lies and heresy. Any radical change to the established order of the world started with a handful of iconoclasts who dared to look at the world through a different lens. Whether the product of genius, madness or slightly unhinged creativity is irrelevant. They saw the world differently, and refused to accept a reality out of lockstep with their convictions, merely because theirs was the sole dissenting voice in a world of conformity.

Project scheduling tools don't do project management. If I had a buck for every time a client said "We need project management. Can you teach us how to use this tool?" I wouldn't need to be a consultant anymore. Project management tools let you 'do' project management like a word processor lets you 'do' English.

To successfully use a word processor requires a number of skills. Familiarity with a computer and its operating system is a given. An understanding of the principles of the program, and what buttons do what, also has value. More important, though, is the understanding of the principles of words on a page, and the thought process behind creating them. Which means that the fundamental principles of English are essential: grasping paragraph and sentence structure, intuiting subject and object agreement, and knowing not to split your infinitives (the Oxford dictionary notwithstanding) is a fundamental pre-requisite in successfully using a word processor.

The column builds on the fundamental principle that many of the challenges stem from the fact that project management is not the primary purpose of organizations, and never will be. Companies are created, structured and run primarily to deliver operational products and services. Projects, however, are still critical to the business success of these organizations - in creating, enhancing, replacing and retiring products and services in response to competitive and market demands. The challenge, then, is to arrive at an approach to managing projects in organizations that can co-exist with their current operational focus. This series addresses the practical steps that organizations can and must take to successfully create an effective project management capability.

This column was originally published during the Nagano Winter Olympics in 1998. In honor of the Salt Lake City games, we've brought it out, dusted it off and are pleased to place it back in the line-up. Enjoy.

Fundamental to our society is the concept of keeping score. We measure ourselves (and more importantly, those we view as competitors) by income, social status, wealth, number of cars. Raw measures that provide an automatic comparison of how we stack up, and how far we still have to go. As the saying goes, he -- or she -- who has the most toys when they die wins.

Companies today, recognizing they face serious cultural, behavioral and management challenges, often look to project management as a quick-fix band-aid that can alleviate - or even eliminate - many of the problems in the organization. Unfortunately, this approach is exactly backwards. The way project management is conducted is a direct reflection the larger management behaviors of the company; a project is in fact a microcosm of the organization as a whole.

As I manage various organizational change projects, I never cease to be amazed by one fundamental truth that - while unspoken - is the single greatest burden that every successful change project must overcome: management acceptance. No more is this true than in projects implementing performance measurement programs.

The reason that this truth often goes unstated is worthy of special recognition. In many - if not most - cases, the management team that ultimately has the greatest difficulty in coming to terms with the nature of the change is frequently the same management team sponsoring the effort in the first place. Paradoxical? Perhaps, but there are some clear drivers of why this is so.

Organizations will grow or fail entirely based upon their success in managing projects. Project management will be the yardstick by which future organizational success is measured. To fail is easy: organizations must simply do nothing, and so will begin an inexorable slide to oblivion as new capabilities are ignored and new opportunities are missed. Success is a much more difficult journey, but simply launching projects is not in and of itself a sufficient guarantee.

We have all seen the statistics regarding project failures -- by even conservative estimates, the majority of projects to date either fail to meet their objectives or are never delivered at all. Moreover, we have all sat through innumerable presentations dissecting the causes of project failure and prescribing the necessary and appropriate solutions. The reality, however, is that for many projects failure is dialed in from the beginning. The greatest challenge that organizations face is not how the project is managed, or who manages it -- but simply how the choice is made.

Acknowledging that projects are going to be subject to the personal agendas of its team members doesn't making it any less frustrating. Michael Hatfield has taken it upon himself to offer 4 classifications for each member of a project team in an effort to anticipate the potential political issues.

Note: The following was taken from Nick Jenkins' A Primer on Project Management. Nick's primer was released
on the creative commons license making the below subject to the same licensing terms.

Why the "art" of project scheduling?

If it were a science then every project would be delivered on time!

Business is, at its heart, a rational beast. It operates according to rules, policies, logic and habit. The ability to think in a reasoned, logical and coherent manner is one that is highly prized up and down the org chart. Passion, for the most part, tends not to surface and in most companies is not valued when it does appear.

Questioning the value and role of passion can itself seem a fool's exercise. Is it right? Is it appropriate? Does it have a place? Does it provide value? These are sound questions; an attempt to suborn passion to reason's conditions and terms. But the question remains: what balance, if any, should passion play with reason?

In my most recent series of columns, I have talked a great deal about the challenges projects face in most organizations. Many of these challenges stem from the fact that project management is not the primary purpose of organizations, and never will be. Companies are created, structured and run primarily to deliver operational products and services. Projects, however, are still critical to these organizations success - in creating, enhancing, replacing and retiring products and services in response to competitive and market demands. The challenge, then, is to arrive at an approach to managing projects in organizations that can co-exist with their current operational focus. This series addresses the practical steps that organizations can and must take to successfully create an effective project management capability.

There's a class of project manager that you may not have encountered because they are so rare. These project managers are the ones you want to work for and the ones that project stakeholders ask for. These alpha project managers are in turn rewarded with salaries that are on average 85% higher than those of their peers. Such is the data that Andy Crowe collected for his Alpha Project Managers: What the Top 2% Know That Everyone Else Does Not.

One of the mistakes I see with project teams is the notion that power should be shared. This approach is taken in the name of team work, but I think that it harms both the people on the team and the project's outcome. Neal Whitten, in an article for PM Network, described 8 reasons why sharing power is probably a sign of weak or inexperienced leaders rather than a sound idea.

A day or two ago I posted some comments on improving project management. Looking for ways to improve the project management process is an admirable thing to do. But sometimes, it really just makes sense to cancel a project and move on.

I'm often asked what skills one needs to be a project manager. My answers often emphasize hard skills which are easy to describe. The truth is that there are also many soft skills or traits which are critical. Alfonso Bucero recently wrote about the results of an informal survey he conducted with many IT project managers in the United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, Netherlands, and Russia. Although the US wasn't included in the mix, the results, I imagine, wouldn't be all that different if he had. Here's his list with my commentary on each trait.

In the January 2007 issue of PM Network there's an article about project audits. I've never been through an audit probably because I haven't run one of the mega-projects with scopes a mile wide and budgets large enough to buy an island that are the mainstay of auditors. Regardless, I found the article interesting.

In Volume 47, Number 11 of the Communications of the ACM, Amrit Tiwana and Mark Keil reported on some results from a study of the relative importance of 6 project risk drivers. They were surprised that the most critical risk driver was actually the choice of methodology rather than a seemingly more common complaint such as constantly changing requirements.

Sometimes project managers make the assumption that professionals brought together on a project will know how to get along with each other. Sadly, this isn't the case. Conflicts abound and projects can be easily derailed if the project manager doesn't take control and manage team behavior.

In the book, A Bias for Action, leadership expert Heike Bruch and management expert Sumantra Ghoshal demonstrate that managers often confuse activity with accomplishments, and motivation with true leadership. Their study reveals that a whopping 90 percent of managers waste their time by procrastinating, becoming emotionally detached, and distracting themselves with busy-work. They point out that only 10 percent of managers truly act purposefully to get the most important work accomplished.

Mark E. Mullaly has posted a great article over at Gantthead about the obstacles a project manager may face in moving up the corporate ladder. He states that, "The project manager is a role unto itself, with no entry point and no graceful exit."

An article in the June 2006 issue of PM Network discusses the political waters that a project manager must navigate regardless of company, project, or location. A sidebar in the article makes for a good summary.

The June 1, 2006 issue of CIO Magazine reports that back in 2001 half of A.G. Edwards' IT projects were late and over budget. And they weren't the exception. A report by the Standish Group indicates that even in 2004, 71% of all IT projects were completed late, over budget, or with reduced functionality from the original specs. Similarly, a 2004 global survey by PricewaterhouseCoopers of small and large companies found that half of the projects these companies engaged in failed.

The following is another page or two from Nick Jenkins' A Primer on Project Management. It is a good overview of the concept of negotiation and what it entails when it comes to managing projects. His primer was distributed under the creative commons license and as such, the following is also subject to the conditions of the creative commons license.

Negotiations can be tricky for technical people, we tend to see the world as a black-and-white, binary environment. 'Techies' often believe that there is a right and wrong way to solve a problem, or that one technology or solution is the 'best' available. This is part of their drive for perfection but in truth there are many ways to solve a problem and each technology or solution has its strength and weaknesses.

There are two free project management software packages that are worth looking in to.

Not everyone sees the value in certifications. And I can't argue that both sides of the argument don't have valid points. So, I'm not going to.